Soviets in political practice of the Russian revolutions and in contemporary democracy theory

Annotation

Today, as the crisis of representative democracy becomes increasingly acknowledged in political theory, there is a rising demand for alternative institutional frameworks. In this context, the author delves into the phenomenon of the Russian Soviets. While this institution often served as a mere façade for the one-party dictatorship in the USSR for decades, it also conceals another significant aspect of its history: the Soviets’ emergence during the two Russian revolutions as a manifestation of grassroots self-organization and collective action by the masses. This article examines the history of the Soviets from their inception in 1905 to the erosion of their democratic essence during the Civil War. The author also engages with the theoretical insights on the Soviet experience offered by H. Arendt, K. B. Macpherson, and A. Callinicos. Ultimately, the conclusion drawn is that the history of the Soviets holds substantial relevance for contemporary democratic theory, which grapples with the dysfunctions inherent in the representative system.

Keywords

• democratic theory
• crisis of democracy
• Soviets
• Russian revolution
• direct democracy
• industrial democracy
• H. Arendt
• K.B. Macpherson
• A. Callinicos
• Bolshevism
* click on a keyword to go to the search

Acknowledgments

the article was prepared in the framework of a research grant funded by the Ministry of Science and Higher Education of the Russian Federation (grant ID: FZNF-2026-0003).

References

1. Arendt, H. O revolyutsii [On revolution]. Moscow: Yevropa; 2011, 456 p.
2. Berdjaev, N. A. Istoki i smysl russkogo kommunizma [The origins and meaning of Russian communism]. Saint Petersburg: Azbuka; 2016, 221 p.
3. Berkovic, R. Protest i demokratiya: Khanna Arendt i uchrezhdenie svobody [Protest and democracy: Hannah Arendt and establishment of freedom]. Stasis [Stasis]. 2017, vol. 6, no. 1, pp. 56–78, doi: 10.33280/2310-3817-2018-6-1-36-55.
4. Volin, V. M. Neizvestnaya revolyutsiya, 1917–1921 [The unknown revolution, 1917–1921]. Moscow: Praksis; 2005, 606 p.
5. Gramshi, A. Fabrichno-zavodskie Sovety i gosudarstvo rabochego klassa [Factory Councils and the Working-Class State]. Izbrannye proizvedeniya [Selected Works]. Moscow: Izdatelstvo inostrannoy literatury; 1957, vol. 1, pp. 19–262.
6. Gubar, A. I. Sovety v gody pervoy revolyutsii v Rossii (1905–1907 gg.) [Soviets during the first revolution in Russia (1905–1907)]. Vestnik Yekaterininskogo instituta [Bulletin of the Catherine Institute]. 2017, no. 3 (39), pp. 30–34.
7. Drobyshev, G. A. Sotsialisticheskie partii v Sovetakh 1917 goda: ot sotrudnichestva k protivoborstvu [Socialist parties in the Soviets of 1917: from cooperation to confrontation]. Vestnik Chelyabinskogo universiteta. Seriya 1 “Istoriya” [Bulletin of Chelyabinsk University. Series 1 “History”]. 1993, no. 1, pp. 19–29.
8. Kagarlitskiy, B. Yu. Dolgoe otstuplenie [A long retreat]. Moscow; Berlin: Direkt-Meda; 2023, 332 p.
9.  Lenin, V. I. Gosudarstvo i revolyutsiya [State and Revolution]. Moscow: AST; 2020, 512 p.
10. Lenin, V. I. Pobeda kadetov i zadachi rabochey partii [The Cadets’ Victory and the tasks of the workers' party]. Saint Petersburg: Nasha mysl, 1906. Available at: http://elib.shpl.ru/ru/nodes/91870#mode/inspect/page/5/zoom/5 (accessed: 11.03.2025).
11. Lyuksemburg, R. O sotsializme i russkoy revolyutsii: izbrannye stati, rechi, pisma [On socialism and the Russian revolution: selected articles, speeches, letters]. Moscow: Politizdat; 1991, 398 p.
12. Mayr, P. Upravlyaya pustotoy: razmyvanie zapadnoy demokratii [Managing the Void: The Erosion of Western Democracy]. Moscow: Gaidar Institute; 2019, 209 p.
13. Makferson, K. B. Zhizn i vremena liberalnoy demokratii [The life and times of liberal democracy]. Moscow: High School of Economics; 2011, 174 p.
14. Manen, B. Printsipy predstavitelnogo pravleniya [Principles of representative government]. Saint Petersburg: European University; 2008, 322 p.
15. Negri, A. Uchrezhdayushchaya vlast. Traktat ob alternativakh Novogo vremeni [Insurgencies: Constituent Power and the Modern State]. Saint Petersburg: Vladimir Dal.; 2024, 767 p.
16.  Piketti, T. Kratkaya istoriya ravenstva [A Brief History of Equality]. Moscow: AST; 2023, 384 p.
17. Trotskiy, L. Istoricheskoe znachenie Soveta rabochikh deputatov [The historical significance of the Council of Workers' Deputies]. Sochineniya [Writings]. Moscow; Leningrad: Gosudarstvennoe izdatelstvo; 1927, vol. 2, part 2. pp. 185–205.
18. Shanin, T. Revolyutsiya kak moment istiny: Rossiya 1905–1907 gg. – 1917–1922 gg. [Revolution as a moment of truth: Russia 1905–1907 – 1917–1922 gg.]. Moscow: Ves mir; 1997, 554 p.
19. Shubin, A. V. Ot vlasti sovetov k partokratii [From Soviet power to partycracy]. Rossiya i sovremennyy mir [Russia and Modern world]. 2019, no. 2, pp. 6–26, doi: 10.31249/rsm/2019.02.01.
20. Shubin, A. V. Sovety, demokratiya i anarkhiya v 1917–1918 gg. [Soviets, Democracy, and Anarchy in 1917–1918]. Acta Eruditorum [Acta Eruditorum]. 2018, no. 26, pp. 75–87.
21.  Callinicos, A. The Revenge of History: Marxism and the East European Revolutions. Cambridge: Polity Press; 1992, 159 p.
22. Callinicos, A. Soviet Power. International Socialism. 1977, no. 103, pp. 7–13.
23. Dalton, R. J. The Participation Gap: Social Status and Political Inequality. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2017, 239 p.
24. Hibbing, J. R., Theiss-Morse, E. Stealth Democracy: Americans' Beliefs about How Government Should Work. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 2004, 304 p.
25. Lomax, B. The working class in the Hungarian revolution of 1956. Critique: Journal of Socialist Theory, 1980, vol. 12, no. 1, pp. 27–54.
26. Macpherson, C. B. The Life and Times of Liberal Democracy. Oxford; NY: Oxford University Press; 1977, 132 p.
27. Pateman, C. Participation and Democratic Theory. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 1970, 132 p.
28.  Piketti, T. Capital and Ideology. Cambridge; London: Belknapp Press; 2020, 1069 p.
29. Pipes, R. The Russian Revolution 1899–1919. Collins Harvill: London; 1990, 944 p.
30. Priestland, D. Soviet Democracy, 1917–1991. European History Quarterly. 2002, vol. 32, no. 1, pp. 111–130.
31. Reed, J. Soviets in Action. International Socialism. 1977, no. 69, pp. 19–23.
32. Tomba, M. Who’s Afraid of the Imperative Mandate? Critical Times. 2018, vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 108–119, doi: 10.1215/26410478-1.1.108.

Popular articles